Debate concerning economic implications of intellectual property rights

The argument refering the economic deductions of rational belongings rights ( IPRs ) has gained considerable attending over the past two decennaries in the context of the World Trade Organization ‘s ( WTO ) Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights ( TRIPS ) . TRIPS aims to contract the spreads in the manner that IPRs are protected around the universe, and to convey them under common international regulations. Developing states are under increasing force per unit area to beef up their national rational belongings ( IP ) regimes, in order to harmonize them with those of developed states. Developing states have been for long clip under demand by developed states for the execution of rational belongings rights. The chief concern by the developed states is to protect the inventions in the developing states from the illegal imitation and copying. The underdeveloped states are divided over the argument on the base of their economic conditions, foreign direct investing and technological edification. The concern for the development states is economic deductions for the execution of such rational belongings governments in their several states. Intellectual Property Rights are one of the sensitive countries for developing states whose proper execution with appropriate timing could raise the socio-economical conditions of the developing states. It is practically inevitable for the developing states to acquire benefit from the strong rational belongings rights owned by the discoverers in the developed states. From the planetary public assistance position, it was argued that holding the weaker rational belongings in the underdeveloped states does non needfully means that discoverers in the developed states would lose, nevertheless the comparative fiscal benefits associated with such innovations could be less.Chapter 1IntroductionOverviewIntellectual Property Rights ( IPR ) are sole rights over creative activities of the head, both artistic and commercial and the corresponding Fieldss of jurisprudence. These include innovations, literary and artistic plants, symbols, names, images, and designs used in commercialism. The success of a merchandise today relies much on creativeness and invention. Awareness of IPRs is important to guarantee originative thoughts and inventions are good protected from commercial development. There remains considerable contention on the economic impact of TRIPS ( interpreted as the tightening of IPRs ) in developing states. This study focuses on the long-run structural issues refering the impact of TRIPS on industrial and engineering development in hapless states. Systems to regulate rational belongings and advance societal public assistance through invention and cognition creative activity are non new. Despite their being through the past decennaries and centuries, rational belongings was comparatively absent from the public argument. The relationship between IPRs and development is so rather complex from a theoretical point of position. On one manus, there are theoretical statements proposing that stronger IPRs can hold positive effects on development. On the other manus, there are theoretical statements against stronger IPRs in developing states. As such, this study reviews the empirical grounds about the relationship between the strength of IPRs and each of the following countries in developing states that is foreign direct investing ( FDI ) , trade, invention and traditional cognition and familial resources. It is found that the relationship is viewed better from an surrogate position, where the broader degrees of economic and societal development have a strong consequence on how IPRs affect developing states. In this manner, the study helps to shift the initial inquiry on the functions of IPRs in developing states and to clear up its related grounds base.Chapter 2Intellectual Property Rights2.1 OverviewIntellectual Property Rights ( IPRs ) are the cardinal drive forces behind economic growing. Inventions, particular procedures, computing machine plans, typical names or Markss, musical and other media work, designs and trade secrets may all be Intellectual Property right protected. Such IPRs must be decently identified, car efully evaluated and skilfully protected if they are to carry through their commercial potency. There are two classs of IPR viz. Industrial Property and Copyrights.2.2 Industrial PropertyIndustrial Property includes innovations, hallmarks, industrial design, and geographical indicant of beginning. Industrial belongings are rights due to industry thoughts for others non to copy or steal thoughts. The three types of Industrial Property are patent, hallmarks, industrial design right and trade secrets.2.2.1 PatentsThe sole right of the discoverer to forestall others from doing, utilizing and selling a patented innovation for a fixed period of clip in return for the discoverer ‘s unwraping the inside informations of the innovation to the populace. Peoples could non copy the innovation under this regulation and is usage at industrial or commercial intents.2.2.2 Trade secretsTrade secret refers to any information that may be used in the operation of a concern and that is sufficiently valuable to afford an existent or possible economic advantage. Some companies make their cardinal employees to subscribe set abouting non to unwrap information about the research that they are working on to other people. Some companies require employees to subscribe set abouting non to fall in a rival within a specified period, such as six months, in instance they resign from the company. These steps are taken so as to protect the companies ‘ trade secrets.2.2.3 HallmarksHallmarks are commercial beginning indexs, typical marks capable of separating the goods or services that are produced or provided by a specific individual or endeavor. Such marks, including personal names, letters, numbers, nonliteral elements and combinations of colors every bit good as any combination of such marks, shall be eligible for enrollment as hallmarks. Hallmarks are for merchandises in selling. It is a mark for forestalling confusion of selling merchandises.2.2.4 Industrial Design RightIndustrial design right protects the signifier of visual aspect, manner or design of an object. Copyright includes novels, verse forms, dramas, movies, music, art work. When an industrial design is protected, the proprietor that is the individual or entity that has registered the design is assured an sole right against unauthorised copying or imitation of the design by 3rd parties. This helps to guarantee a just return on investing. Protecting industrial designs helps economic development, by promoting creativeness in the industrial and fabrication sectors, every bit good as in traditional humanistic disciplines and trades. They contribute to the enlargement of commercial activities and the export of national merchandises.2.3 CopyrightCopyright protects merely the signifiers of looks of the thought non the thoughts themselves. For illustration agreements of words, musical notes, colourss and forms of work are protected. The continuance of copyright exists during the being of right of first pu blication proprietor. It begins from the minute when the work is created and continues some clip after the proprietor ‘s decease. The ownership of copyright belongs to the individual who created the work.2.3.1 Copyright and IPRCopyright and IPR are considered to be an of import portion of modern life. Technological alteration means that IPR are going more and more important. Copyright notices should look on all plants for which protection is sought. Intellectual belongings should be decently dealt with, within all contracts and where appropriate confidentiality understandings should be used, for illustration to protect person ‘s â€Å" cognition † or innovations during dialogues from being exploited for fiscal or other addition. Copyright is an highly relevant right for the information engineering sector. It could about hold been designed with computing machines and the Internet in head. Copyright is the right of the conceiver of a literary, dramatic, artistic or musical work to command the reproduction and publication or public presentation of the work. Equally far as the Internet is concerned, copyright protects most stuffs on the Internet. It protects computing machine package and its beginning codification, screen shows and other literary, musical and artistic plants on the Internet.2.4 Brief overview on WIPOThe World Intellectual Property Organization ( WIPO ) is a specialised bureau of the United Nations. Established in 1970, the World Intellectual Property Organization ( WIPO ) is an international organisation dedicated to assisting to guarantee that the rights of Godheads and proprietors of rational belongings are protected worldwide and that discoverers and writers are therefore recognized and rewarded for their inventiveness. This international protection acts as a goad to human creativeness, forcing frontward the boundaries of scientific discipline and engineering and enriching the universe of literature and the humanistic disciplines.How does WIPO advance the protection of rational belongings?As portion of the United Nati ons, WIPO exists as a forum for its Member States to make and harmonise regulations and patterns to protect rational belongings rights. Most industrialised states have protection systems that are centuries old. Many new and underdeveloped states, nevertheless, are now constructing up their patent, hallmark, and copyright Torahs and systems. With the rapid globalisation of trade during the last decennary, WIPO plays a cardinal function in assisting these new systems evolve through pact dialogue, legal and proficient aid, and preparation in assorted signifiers, including in the country of enforcement of rational belongings rights. WIPO besides provides planetary enrollment systems – for patents, hallmarks, and industrial designs which are under regular reappraisal by Member States and other stakeholders to find how they can break function the demands of users and possible users. WIPO works with its Member States to demystify rational belongings from the grass-roots degree through the concern sector to policy shapers to guarantee that its benefits are good known, decently understood, and accessible to all.Chapter 3Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights( TRIPS )3.1 IntroductionTRIPS is an international understanding administered by the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) that sets down minimal criterions for many signifiers of rational belongings ( IP ) ordinance as applied to subjects of other WTO Members. It was negotiated at the terminal of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade ( GATT ) in 1994. The TRIPS understanding introduced rational belongings jurisprudence into the international trading system for the first clip and remains the most comprehensive international understanding on rational belongings to day of the month. In 2001, developing states, concerned that developed states were take a firm standing on an overly narrow reading of TRIPS, initiated a unit of ammunition of negotiations that resulted in the Doha Declaration. The Doha declaration is a WTO statement that clarifies the range of TRIPS. After the Uruguay unit of ammunition, the GATT became the footing for the constitution of the World Trade Organization. Because confirmation of TRIPS is a mandatory demand of World Trade Organization rank, any state seeking to obtain easy entree to the legion international markets opened by the World Trade Organization must ordain the rigorous rational belongings Torahs mandated by TRIPS. For this ground, TRIPS is the most of import many-sided instrument for the globalisation of rational belongings Torahs. Many surveies have analyzed the impact of TRIPS on both the developed and developing states based on two attacks, foremost from the historical/empirical position, including the application of statistical/econometric techniques, and 2nd from a theoretical position, chiefly game theory.The pre-TRIPS and post-TRIPS pecuniary flows across statesFrom the historical/empirical position, research workers have already investigated at length the impact of TRIPS on assorted economic systems. These surveies normally focus on pre-TRIPS and post-TRIPS informations on foreign direct investing forms, royalty and licensing payment flows, and so on. For illustration, La Croix and Konan ( 2006 ) reappraisal IMF informations crossing from 1992 to 2003 in selected European Union and APEC states ( as shown in Figure 1 ) . Figure 1: Pre-TRIPS and post-TRIPS pecuniary flows Beginning: Adapted from IMF Balance of Payments Statistics ( 2004 ) ; La Croix and Konan ( 2006 ) Their analysis shows that for the USA, France, the UK, and Japan, there are post-TRIP additions in the influx of net royalties and licence transportations, while many other states have experienced increased escapes. Lai ( 2008 ) reaches similar decisions by demoing the biggest victors ( USA, Germany, France ) and biggest also-rans ( Canada, Brazil ) from TRIPS enforcement and patent harmonisation across take parting states under the TRIPS understanding. Therefore, in footings of net royalties and licence transportations, merely a few developed states benefit from TRIPS while most of the developing states suffer from TRIPS.Knowledge/technology transportations and IPRsAnother of import issue is whether a stronger domestic IPR protection can pull more foreign technology/knowledge transportations into the underdeveloped states. Maskus ( 2000 ) concludes that foreign direct investings ( FDIs ) and engineering transportation may increase when patent rights are strengthened. But the positiv e impact of stronger IPR protection depends on the competitory nature of the economic system. Similarly, La Croix and Konan ( 2006 ) point out that †the effectivity of stronger IPRs in exciting growing depends on the capableness of the domestic economic system to implement the IPRs and to absorb foreign direct investing and foreign engineering expeditiously. † Hence, a stronger IPR government may increase the cognition influx, but a stronger IPR criterion is non a satisfactory status. Knowledge transportations from foreign states depend on sufficient conditions, such as an equal substructure of the domestic economic system, high labour productivity/wage rate ratio, unfastened trade policy, advanced capacity, market size, GDP per capita, political stableness, and so on. If most or all of the necessary conditions are satisfied, a stronger IPR protection is likely to pull more FDI or engineering licensing which transportations knowledge and/or gives the domestic state a better opportunity to tap into the planetary stock of cognition. However, if few or none of the conditions are satisfied, a stronger IPR government entirely will non do any important difference in increasing the cognition flow into the state. The being of the other ( sufficient ) conditions is one of the grounds why the four †East Asiatic Tigers † and China received a batch of FDIs while their IPR governments were weak, and why some other states can non pull more foreign investing even aft er they strengthen their IPR criterions.3.2 Execution in developing statesWhen developing states join the planetary administration, they are bound with rational belongings right understanding. They are coerced into an understanding, which transfer million of dollars worth of monopoly net incomes from hapless states to wealth states under the belongings right jurisprudence. The understanding related to rational belongingss such as trade-related rational belongings rights ( TRIPS ) , TRIMs utilizing planetary administration GATT, have been set up. However, all these understandings is far from favorable for developing words as it merely represented the most strongest and competitory MNC ‘s and industrialized states. In TRIPS, for case, belongings right understanding in computing machine package, pharmaceuticals merely to protect industrialized states based houses, which have comparative advantage in these merchandises ( Stubbs and Geoffrey 2000, p.174-5 ) . The costs of implement ing the TRIPS Agreement to developing states are really high. Mexico spent over US $ 30 million upgrading rational belongings Torahs and enforcement ( Finger and Schuler 1999 ) . In bilateral trade dialogues, US force per unit area led states like Nigeria, Uganda, Morocco and Cambodia to implement patent protection governments for pharmaceuticals which are more restrictive than those required under TRIPS and are therefore known as TRIPS Plus. Intellectual belongings right under TRIPS is besides applied really loosely to let patent rights over single works cistrons, seed and their features and WTO members must protect works assortments either through patents ( WIPO ) . Up to now agricultural biotechnology MNC ‘s have filed 1000s of patents on works assortments, seeds. This would connote the remotion of husbandmans ‘ rights in developing states over workss, seeds and progressively easy for MNC ‘s which ain patent to implement their rational belongings rights in developing states. For illustration husbandmans in Nalgonda territory of Andhra Pradesh in India paid up to 1,600 rupees for a 450-gram package of Bt cotton seeds own by MNC ‘s, ( of which the royalty constituent was 1,200 rupees ) , as against 450-500 rupees for normal assortments. Despite the costs, Bt cotton outputs have sometimes been lower than those of local assortments ( The Hindu, India ‘s National intelligence paper, 2003 ) .Dut ch east indiesIn Indonesia, there are besides rather a few grounds have shown how the planetary regulation implemented in TRIPS and TRIMS is working chiefly to protect the involvement of industrialized states and MNC ‘s instead so developing states. Owing to international force per unit area, Indonesian authorities has to hold to legion international conventions on rational belongings right. These include the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, the WIPO Copyright Treaty, the Patent Cooperation Treaty, the Trademark Law Treaty, the Nice Agreement for the International Classification of Unclassified Goods and Services, and the Strasbourg Agreement Concerning International Patent Classification. Since so Indonesia need to sporadically escalate actions against copyright buccaneering or will be criticized from planetary community. The new right of first publication jurisprudence in Indonesia came into force in July 2003. The jurisprudence contains a figure of of import commissariats long sought by MNC ‘s operating in this state including proviso for the issue of an implementing ordinance on optical discs ( OD ) , condemnable punishments for end-user buccaneering and the ability of right holders to seek civil injunctions against plagiarists. The right of first publication jurisprudence establishes rights to licence, bring forth, rent or broadcast audiovisual, cinematographic, and computing machine package. Young graduates come ining a profession have get downing wages of around $ 80- $ 100 per month ( Richter and Pamela, 2004 ) . It is, hence, unrealistic to anticipate the state like this to be able to use strong moralss such as TRIPS where the support of the general population is still hapless. If copyright jurisprudence is really purely applied and the pupils are required to purchase a book that will be more so their life disbursal for a month, ( like some foreign text editions are ) at that place will non many of them could attempt to hold it. This state of affairs will besides do the future coevals of developing states be denied from the newest engineering and cognition. Under the inducements created by the planetary system of patenting, right of first publication and rational belongings right protection, the planetary participant in pharmaceutical industries will be more interesting in bring forthing medical specialty for the rich instead so the hapless.3.3 Benefits from allowing monopoly rightsThere are four sorts of benefits from allowing monopoly rights to pioneers. Each is capable to makings every bit far as developing states are concerned.The stimulation of private inventionThe importance of this benefit rises with the gait of proficient alteration as at present and with the ‘imitability ‘ of new engineering, peculiarly in such activities as package. It besides grows with globalization, which leads pioneers ( in peculiar big multinational companies ) to pitch their R & A ; D to universe instead than national markets. However, where the state in inquiry has little or no local advanced capablenesss, the strengthening of IPRs does non excite domestic invention. The extent to which it stimulates planetary R & A ; D depends on its portion of the market for peculiar advanced activities and its ability to pay for expensive new merchandises. Where the economic system undertakes technological activity of an absorbent and adaptative sort, the great ma jority of informal and R & A ; D attempt in freshly industrializing states, stronger IPRs may hold no consequence in exciting it. On the contrary, to the extent that such attempt involves copying and change by reversal technology inventions elsewhere, it can compress a critical beginning of acquisition, capableness edifice and fight.The usage of the new cognition in productive activityWithout such usage, of class, there can be no fiscal wages to pioneers in footings of higher monetary values and net incomes, it leads to higher incomes, employment, fight and so on for the economic system as a whole. If the cognition is non exploited within the economic system, and its merchandises are provided at higher monetary values than in with weak IPRs, the additions are correspondingly less and the costs correspondingly higher. There may still be additions, if invention is stimulated by the being of that state ‘s market and the new merchandises represent a existent addition in consumer p ublic assistance. This addition has to be set against non merely the higher monetary values induced by IPRs but besides against decreases in local economic activity as a consequence of the monopoly and longer term growing potency.The airing of new cognition to other agentsStricter IPRs may ease the transportation of engineering across national boundary lines every bit good as addition local diffusion by supplying an enforceable legal model. This is likely to be of particular significance for technology-intensive merchandises and activities, where pioneers are antipathetic to selling engineering to states with weak IPRs, where escape is a existent possibility ( Cantwell and Andersen, 1996 ) . The economic benefit in a underdeveloped state depends on the presence of local agents capable of buying, absorbing and deploying new engineerings, peculiarly complex high engineerings. If no such agents exist, rigorous IPRs offer no benefit for engineering transportation. If they exist, the siz e of the benefits depends on two things: the extent to which rigorous IPRs raise the cost of purchasing engineerings, and whether the options of copying and contrary technology would hold been executable, cheaper and more rewarding in constructing up local technological capablenesss.The stimulation of invention by other endeavorsThis is a really of import benefit of the IPR system, but clearly its value is chiefly to economic systems where there is intense advanced activity by big Numberss of viing endeavors. Innovation around a peculiar patent is one of the most dynamic beginnings of technological advancement. However, this is of small or no value to hapless and unindustrialized states that lack a local advanced base. These makings are, of class, acknowledged in the IPR literature.Chapter 4Intellectual Property and Foreign Direct Investment4.1 OverviewNormally, FDI is seen as cardinal determiners for economic development and poorness decrease in developing states. Inward FDI can tu rn out to be good to developing states, ensuing in the betterment in domestic advanced capacity, increased R & A ; D employment, better preparation and support to instruction. Over the past two decennaries, there has been a turning scholarly literature on the relationship between IPRs and FDI influxs in developing states. From a theoretical point of view, the relationship between IPRs and FDI determinations is complex. The undermentioned subdivisions review the theoretical statements for and against stronger IPRs in developing states in their influence on FDI determinations.4.2 The instance for stronger rational belongings rightsStronger rational belongings rights can make ownership advantagesInvesting by houses can be more likely when host states have strong IP protection, as this reduces the hazards of imitation and leads to a comparatively larger net demand for protected merchandises ( Primo Braga and Fink, 1998a ) . Hence, IPRs positively affect the volume of FDI by enabling for eign houses to vie efficaciously with local houses that possess ownership advantages ( Smarzynska Javorcik, 2004 ) .Stronger rational belongings rights can make location advantagesNot merely can IPRs positively affect the volume of FDI, but they can besides act upon where multinationals decide to turn up that investing. IPRs are defensive in nature and hence differ across national boundaries. Therefore, stronger IPRs in some underdeveloped states can be a location advantage that will positively impact multinationals ‘ determinations. On the contrary, developing states characterised by weak IPRs can be less attractive locations for foreign houses. However, in the context of TRIPS, it is sensible to believe that the tendency toward harmonization of IPRs within TRIPS would countervail such location advantages. In this sense, states with weaker protection can go more attractive as they strengthen their IPRs, and the comparative attraction of those with strong IPRs already in being can fall ( Maskus, 2004 ) .Stronger rational belongings rights can increase quality of foreign direct investingIPRs affect the composing of FDI. Strong protection may promote FDI in high engineering sectors, where such rights play an of import function. In add-on, it may switch the focal point of FDI undertakings from distribution to fabrication ( Smarzynska Javorcik, 2004 ) .4.3 The instance against stronger rational belongings rightsStrengthening rational belongings rights can increase market powerStrong IPRs negatively influence FDI by supplying rights holders with increased market power. As a consequence, strong IPRs cause houses to deprive and cut down their service to foreign states. The market power consequence can cut down the snap of demand confronting the foreign house, bring oning them to put or bring forth less of its patentable merchandise in the host state. Stronger IPRs can let the pattern of higher monetary values by foreign houses because IPRs cut down competition among houses. Therefore, stronger monetary values can counterbalance for lower investing or production.Stronger rational belongings rights can discourage foreign direct investing by promoting LicensingStrong IPRs can besides do multinationals to exchange their preferable manner of bringing from foreign production and R & A ; D to licensing ( Primo Braga and Fink, 1998a ) . Ferrantino ( 1993 ) argues that houses prefer FDI over licencing when protection is weak, as houses are more able to keep direct control over their assets through internalised foreign production or inhouse foreign R & A ; D. In this instance, beef uping IPRs diminishes the inducement for FDI at the border for R & A ; D-intensive industries ( Primo Braga and Fink, 1997 ) .4.4 Evidence from the position of developing statesIntellectual belongings rights seem to impact positively on economic development throughforeign direct investingBranstetter et Al. ( 2007 ) supply empirical penetrations about the effects of increased FDI on industrial development. By utilizing firm-level panel informations on US transnational houses, they examined how those houses responded to a series of rational belongings reforms undertaken in 16 states in Asia, Europe, Latin America and the Middle East ( Argentina, Brazil, Chile, China, Colombia, Indonesia, Japan, Mexico, Philippines, Portugal, South Korea, Spain, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey and Venezuela ) . Their findings showed that US multinationals expanded the graduated table of their activities in states after these states implemented IPR reforms. The addition in usage of inputs in the host states was disproportionately higher among multinationals that made extended usage of IPRs. In add-on to it, industrial activity expanded overall after rights reform. This enlargement of transnational activity more than countervail any diminution in the imitative activity of local houses.Intellectual belongings rights positively affect outward foreign direct investingRefering outward FDI from developing states, Park and Lippoldt ( 2003 ) through empirical observation showed that that an addition in the strength of patent rights tended to significantly and positively impact the outward FDI of developing and least developed states. This implies these states could derive from the harmonization of IPRs ( Park and Lippoldt, 2003 ) .Chapter 5Intellectual Property and Trade5.1 OverviewFor most underdeveloped states, international trade allows them to get high value-added goods through importing that are necessary for economic development, but which are non produced domestically. In bend, exports allow developing states to tr ansform underutilized natural resources and surplus labour into foreign exchange, in order to pay for imports to back up economic growing. The undermentioned paragraphs briefly present the chief theoretical statements back uping and disputing the position that stronger IPRs addition and heighten international trade.5.2 The instance for stronger rational belongings rightsStronger rational belongings rights can make ownership advantagesStronger IPRs provide ownership advantages to houses functioning foreign markets by supplying legal resort against misdemeanor of their assets. Therefore, stronger IPRs expand the markets served by houses. Strong IPRs can besides increase bilateral exchange to foreign markets by cut downing the costs associated with preventing loss of cognition assets. Such costs consist of foregone grosss ensuing from reduced bilateral exchange and/or disbursals incurred to do cognition assets hard to copy ( Maskus and Penubarti, 1995 )International harmonization of ra tional belongings rights governments can cut down thedealing costs associated with tradeExporting houses in developed states face extra costs when exporting to developing states, when they must prosecute in activities designed to suppress local imitation. International harmonization of IPR governments can decrease the dealing costs of operating in different regulative environments. In this respect, it can stand for a location advantage for the participating states.5.3 The instance against stronger rational belongings rightsStrengthening rational belongings rights can increase market powerThe market power construct holds that strong rights cut down bilateral exchange by guaranting a impermanent monopoly over the protected cognition. This market power is attributed to the patent ( grant ) holder, whether domestic or foreign. Firms that secure strong patent protection in foreign markets can exert their market power by curtailing measure and increasing the unit monetary value of bilater al exchange to that market ( Maskus and Penubarti, 1995 ; Fink and Primo Braga, 2004 ) . Firms ‘ behavior depends on a assortment of conditions. For illustration, market power can be generated by comparatively modest strength of IPRs when markets are segmented, when few near replacements are available and proficient soaking up capacities are weak. Furthermore, strong IPRs can reenforce market cleavage and cut down the ability to replace merchandises. As a consequence, a negative relationship can emerge between the strength of IPRs and bilateral flows under market power conditions, particularly when proficient absorbent capacities are weak ( Smith, 2001 ) . Firms are likely to cut down the measure supplied and increase the protected merchandises ‘ monetary values.Stronger rational belongings rights can discourage trade and promote licensingA farther beginning of uncertainness stems from the fact that differing degrees of IPRs can impact a house ‘s determination abou t its preferable manner of functioning a foreign market. In an environment characterised by strong rights, a house may take to function a foreign market by FDI, or by licencing its rational assets instead than through direct export. In this regard, beef uping rational belongings protection can hold negative effects on trade flows ( Fink and Primo Braga, 2004 ) .5.4 Evidence from the position of developing statesThe empirical literature is about whether increased imports from developed states affect economic development and whether harmonization of IPRs has affected their export behavior. However, even within these countries, the empirical grounds from the position of developing states is instead limited, particularly sing the affect of imports from developed states on economic development.International harmonization of rational belongings rights may promote exports from emerging industrialized statesLiu and Lin ( 2005 ) carried out a back-to-back pooled informations analysis from 1989 to 2000 in order to look into the relationship between IPRs and the exports of three hi-tech industries in Taiwan: semiconducting material, information and communicating equipment. Their empirical consequences showed that betterment in IPRs had a positive impact on Taiwan ‘s exports if the importing state had a stronger R & A ; D ability than Taiwan. Furthermore, Liu and Lin found that when an importing state exhibited a strong menace of imitation, the betterment in IPRs in that state increased Taiwan ‘s exports through the market enlargement consequence. These consequences were corroborated farther by Yang and Huang ( 2009 ) .Harmonization has non increased exports from other developing statesSmith et Al. ( 2009 ) explore d whether TRIPS generated additions for developing states in the signifier of increased pharmaceutical exports. They found that TRIPS had non generated significant additions for developing states, but alternatively increased pharmaceutical trade in developed states.Chapter 6Intellectual Property and Innovation6.1 OverviewOver the past two decennaries, there has been a turning academic literature look intoing the relationship between IPRs and invention. This relationship can be examined through the impact of IPRs on domestic invention ( i.e. engineering creative activity ) and IPRs ‘ impact on engineering transportation ( i.e. engineering soaking up and diffusion ) . The undermentioned subdivisions review the theoretical statements for and against stronger IPRs in developing states, to act upon engineering transportation from developed states and domestic invention.6.2 The instance for stronger rational belongings rightsIntellectual belongings rights can supply inducements for houses to put in R & A ; DFirms do non hold the right inducements to put in R & A ; D and invention if the benefits of such investing accrue to their rivals. This is the traditional statement about private under-investment in R & A ; D due to market failure ( Foray, 2009 ) . The production of new merchandises and procedures generates new cognition. New cognition carries considerable economic value, but it has characteristics that make it debatable for the market system to manage decently. Knowledge is seen as a public good, and public goods have two basic properties. First, they are non-rival in ingestion and 2nd, they are ‘non-excludable ‘ . Without IPRs, a free market economic system can neglect to bring on an optimum investing in R & A ; D and invention, since investors would non be able to reimburse the full benefit from their investing. Stronger IPRs can give greater inducements to houses to put in R & A ; D.Stronger rational belongings rights can make ownership advantagesStronger IPRs give strong ownership advantages to houses in developed states, which can promote them to reassign their engineering to developing states through market channels: trade, FDI and licensin g.Stronger rational belongings rights can cut down asymmetric information in engineering transportationIPRs can significantly cut down asymmetric information jobs in undertaking for international engineering transportation ( Arora, 1995 ) .The proprietor of a engineering may hold complete cognition about its specifications, its effectivity when deployed under different fortunes, associated know-how and the similar, while the purchaser has far less information about it. Therefore, the purchaser would be unwilling to offer a monetary value that would cover all of these claimed benefits before they are certain that such information is right. However, the marketer could be unwilling to uncover the information without a contract in topographic point at an acceptable monetary value: to make so could change the negotiating footings in his disfavor at best, and instantly make a rival based on the revealed cognition at worst. Stronger IPRs can let the decrease of asymmetric information in un dertaking for engineering transportation.6.3 The instance against stronger rational belongings rightsStronger rational belongings rights can increase market powerStronger IPRs are likely to raise the costs of engineering transportation, since they increase discoverers ‘ market power. Inventors can be expected to sell engineerings at a monetary value higher than fringy cost, which is socially less than optimal for the recipient state, at least in a inactive sense.Strengthening rational belongings rights can be deficient to cut down the asymmetric information jobThe statement developed by Arora ( 1995 ) is based on the transactional troubles created by the fact that statute information and tacit cognition are complementary and must be transferred together. However, this statement overlooks a job sing the receiver state ‘s legal and proficient capacities, it needs highly-skilled people who are able to cover with complex contract dialogues ( Foray, 2009 ) .Intellectual belongings rights systems can promote diffusion of free proficient informationIt is utile to remember that patent systems do non needfully impede the diffusion of proficient information. Rather, patent systems can even excite the diffusion of proficient information, since the discoverer must publically unwrap the proficient inside informations of the new technological cognition in exchange for patent rights. Technical description is an indispensable act. It is intended to supply sufficient ‘instructions ‘ for a specializer in that peculiar field, so as to be able to reproduce the innovation and better it. Strong IPRs may compel investors to unwrap their innovations to the full. In this sense, the patent system can bring forth a immense depository of proficient information in any technological country which can b e freely used by anyone looking for information about a given engineering ( Foray, 2009 ) .Weak rational belongings rights can promote international engineering transportationthrough non-market channelsInternational engineering transportation frequently occurs through non-market channels: nonvoluntary airing via copying and contrary technology. During the period of weak IPRs in developing states, copying was surely a major channel for international engineering transportation, in peculiar in the newly-industrialised states. Historical instances show that several developed states have used weak IPRs to hike the development of their industries ( Foray, 2009 ) . One can reason that it is plausible that IPRs may hinder such engineering transportation while beef uping ‘market-based ‘ channels, i.e. engineering transportation through trade, foreign direct investing and licensing6.4 The empirical groundsThe empirical literature on the impact of IPRs and invention in a North-South context has increased significantly throughout the 1990s and 2000s. The empirical grounds can be divided into two chief organic structures of work, foremost analyzing the effects of IPRs on international engineering and secondly look intoing how IPRs can impact on domestic invention in developing states.6.4.1 Evidence on international engineering transportationIntellectual belongings rights tend to impact positively on licensingThe majority of the empirical literature on the impact of IPRs on international engineering transportation has focused on the market-based signifiers of engineering transportation: trade, FDI and licensing. Yang and Maskus ( 2001 ) regressed the existent volume of license fees for industrial procedures paid by unaffiliated foreign houses to US houses in 23 developed and developing states in the 1980s and 19 90s on the Ginarte-Park index ( Australia, Brazil, Canada, Germany, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Norway, Philippines, Singapore, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the Netherlands, UK and Venezuela ) . They discovered that stronger patent rights pull larger arm's-length volumes of accredited engineering, and that a 1 per cent rise in the index would increase licencing volumes by 2.3 per cent on norm. Smith ( 2001 ) relates US export, gross revenues of foreign affiliates and licensing fees to the Ginarte- Park patent index in several developed and developing states. In peculiar, Smith finds important grounds that stronger IPRs addition licensing payments on norm, at least for states with strong imitative abilities. Using the firm-data from Nipponese multinationals, Ito and Wakasugi ( 2007 ) found that stronger enforcement of IPRs accelerates the intra-firm engineering transportation measured by royalty payments from the affiliate to its parent houses.Intellectual belongings rights affect the channels of engineering transportationWhen analyzing the effects of I PRs on engineering transportation, it is of import to see the manners of bringing of engineering transportation through the different market channels: trade, FDI and licensing. The determinations among the different channels of engineering transportation depend on the strength of IPRs and ownership advantage ( Smith, 2001 ) . These determinations concern whether or non to reassign production, and therefore cognition, outside the beginning state and/or the beginning house. Firms prosecuting in exports hold their cognition inside both the beginning state and house. Firms that set up affiliates abroad transfer cognition outside the beginning state, but hold knowledge assets inside the beginning house. Firms that license their cognition assets to unaffiliated foreign houses transfer cognition outside both the beginning state and house. Smith ( 2001 ) finds that strong IPRs have a larger consequence on US cognition transferred outside the state and house, comparative to knowledge located inside the state and internalised in the house. In order words, strong IPRs spring inducements to houses in developed states to licence their engineerings to other houses in developing states, since the former will be able to command better the cognition transferred.6.4.2 Evidence on domestic inventionAlthough there are many empirical surveies on the relationship between IPRs and domestic invention ( i.e. engineering creative activity ) in developed states, the empirical literature on developing states is much more limited.Stronger rational belongings rights seem to promote invention in emerging industrialized economic systemsUsing panel informations for 64 developing states over the period 1975-2000, Chen and Puttitanun ( 2005 ) showed the positive impact of IPRs on inventions in developi ng states. Dutta and Sharma ( 2008 ) examined whether IPRs in India have increased invention by houses. Using panel informations on Indian houses from 1989 to 2005, they found strong grounds that Indian houses in more innovation-intensive industries increased their R & A ; D outgo after TRIPS. The estimated within-firm addition in one-year R & A ; D disbursement after TRIPS was on mean 20 per centum points higher in an industry with a one standard-deviation higher value of invention strength.Chapter 7Intellectual Property, Genetic Resources and Traditional Knowledge7.1 OverviewFamilial resources from workss, animate beings and microorganisms are common in developing states, amounting to 90 per cent of the universe ‘s familial resources. Communities and persons in developing states have exploited these familial resources through the coevalss. Their usage is embodied in what frequently is referred to as traditional cognition. Clear events affecting IP jurisprudence and tradition al cognition, every bit good as theoretical arguments, have informed the inquiries asked in empirical surveies ( Oguamanam, 2008 ) .7.2 Evidence from the position of developing statesUniform IP Torahs can non guarantee diverseness of entree and benefit-sharingFor developed states, the effectivity of steps to protect diverseness of cognition depends on favourable market conditions and on communities ‘ capablenesss to allow a degree of market power. This decision that protection of diverseness in invention and production depends on local capablenesss nowadayss specific concerns for developing states. Some surveies find that there are strong monetary value premiums for high-quality biological merchandises arising from developing states, such as java ( Grote, 2007 ; Tregear et al. , 2007 ) . Developing states host the bulk of familial resources but frequently lack the technological capacity and capital to develop these resources sustainably. Trommetter ( 2005 ) suggests, through m ention to historical instance surveies in pharmaceuticals and agribusiness, that developing states ‘ capacity to negociate, their bargaining power and perceptual experiences of their committedness to implement understandings impact the just benefit-sharing of familial resources among those in developed and developing states.Tailored IP Torahs may back up diverseness of entree and benefit-sharingCases where a clear deficiency of capableness in developing states to act upon invention processes correspond with a turning literature look intoing steps to supply for diverseness of engagement in cognition protection governments in developing states. This subdivision reviews the empirical literature in each of these countries in bend, underscoring the grounds for the effectivity of these different steps possible through IP jurisprudence to protect the diverseness of cognition related to familial resources in developing states.Chapter 8RecommendationsThere are theoretical statements de moing that beef uping IPRs can hold positive effects on FDI. Strong rights can make ownership advantages that allow houses to put abroad. They can besides stand for a location advantage, which can be used by developing states to pull new cross-border investing. Furthermore, stronger IPRs can supply inducements for multinationals to increase the quality of their investing dedicated to developing states. Strong IPRs can increase the market power of multinationals in developing states, giving them inducements to increase the monetary value of their merchandises and to diminish their investing and gross revenues abroad. Furthermore, beef uping IPRs can cut down FDI to the benefit of licensing. Empirical grounds shows that stronger IPRs positively affect the volume of inward FDI in developing states, particularly those with strong proficient absorbent capablenesss. Additionally, they may act upon the composing of FDI by promoting investing in production and R & A ; D instead than in gross revenues and distribution. international harmonization of IPR governments may promote exports from emerging industrialized states. However, this harmonization does non look to hold increased exports from other developing states. Stronger IPRs in developing states may further international engineering transportation, at least to states with strong technological absorptive capablenesss. Stronger IPRs are needed in developing states to promote domestic invention due to market failure and to ease international engineering transportation from developed states due to information dissymmetries in catching.Chapter 9DecisionThe argument for rational belongings rights execution in developing states provides the base for the limit among developed, developing and hapless or least developed states ( LDC ) . On one side, developing states views the TRIPS understandings, in association to rational belongings rights as an bullying for their present economic systems, which might finally increase the entree to technological merchandises by increasing their cost. Soon, there is a demand to set up a model on the base of TRIPS understanding which could let the unvarying execution of strong or comparatively better IPR governments in the underdeveloped economic systems. This study has examined the impact of beef uping IPRs in developing states in four chief countries – FDI, trade, invention and familial resources and traditional cognition through a reappraisal of the most recent scholarly and gray literature. The empirical findings from the study show that stronger IPRs seem to act upon the determinations of single houses in developed states by promoting them to export, put and reassign their engineerings through licensing in developing states, in peculiar those with strong proficient absorbent activities. By increasing market power, strong IPRs can increase the costs of international engineering transportation. Furthermore, well-structured IPRs can promote the airing of free proficient information in the economic system. Some theoretical statements suggest that stronger IPRs are needed in developing states to promote domestic invention due to market failure and to ease international engineering transportation from developed states due to inf ormation dissymmetries in catching. As a conclusive note, beef uping IPRs can increase the market power of foreign houses in developing states, giving them inducements to increase the monetary value of their merchandises and diminish their exports to developing states. Furthermore, beef uping IPRs can cut down trade to the benefit of licensing. Furthermore, there is empirical grounds proposing that IPRs can positively impact trade, at least with states with high proficient absorbent capablenesss. However, stronger IPRs have differential effects across industries.

How the American Legal System and Business is impacted

1. Introduction This paper seeks to examine the economical effect, if any, upon what the legal system requires of business in America, from a sole proprietor, to a corporation. The paper will also have to look at the costs imposed on operating a business for obtaining a business license, advertising, filing fees paid to the State, and all such costs and within a State, City, and County. 2. Analysis and Discussion The conduct of any business in any part of the world is regulated by the government and therefore business activities are governed by laws locally and on the state level. As to why the government impost cost to conducting business is based on basically two state powers, which are the police power (Lee, 1973) and the power of taxation.   In regulating the business entities and the latter are activities, the government has the best of intentions of promoting public welfare. Hence, under the local level of government, there can be imposed local permits fees and license fees that must be paid by business operators whenever these entities are sole proprietorship, partnership or corporations are to start in operating their business.     Ã‚  Since these fees are being imposes to recover the cost of government in allowing the conduct of business, such power of the state from local to national is being imposed by the exercise of police power of the state by the local level government. Being therefore cost of regulation, the amount of cost is rather fixed and rates may be more or less the same for the group of similar type of business industry. Still pursuant to the police power of the state, the government enforces the laws of business and administers justice where business entities complain of violations of commercial laws. To illustrate the point, business entities enter into contracts and in certain cases it could happen there could refusal to comply with the obligations created out of contracts.   The parties cannot put the law into their hands, thus there must be a court systems that must settle the issues between the parties.   One may therefore clearly see the relevance of the legal system which is part of doing business.   Since legal system entails services rendered by government, it should not be a surprise when government courts require the payment of filing fees as cost of pursuing justice on the part of business entities. But since government does not only interfere from the local level but also at state level, another form of charges are imposed under the state’s power of taxation.   Since the power of taxation (Goode, 1951) involves the revenue generating power of the government, the government may impose several forms of taxes such as income taxes and value added tax. Income tax (Goode; 1976; Smith, et. al, 1958) is a tax based on the financial earning capacity of the business entities, which may include sole proprietorship, partnership and corporation. Under this kind of taxation, the state is charging taxes on the basis of an assumed obligation of the taxpayer-entities to the state in return for the service given by the state to the business entities in the form of security and protection and other services by reason for its being a government that needs funds to defray its expenses. Another form of taxation which may also be imposed by the local levels of government if provided in their city charters, are the business taxation. This may take the form of sales tax or the more familiar business taxes. As distinguish from income taxation, business taxation, charges the taxpayer for having been given the privilege of operating a business. Such kind of taxes is normally based on the amount of gross receipts, or sales revenues as basis for output tax but subject to certain deductions for claims like input taxes to reduce the taxes payable to the government. Surely the effect of these charges economically could just be huge that could affect the operation of doing business. Since business entities operate under the idea of being profitable to be able to recover cost expended in business, the amount of taxes, charges and licenses should not be too prohibitive as to discourage business from doing business. This might be apparent for business taxes in the form of excise tax (Fossen, 2002) on cigarettes and wines or the so called ‘sin taxes’. This kind of taxes are also in the nature of excise taxes and therefore part of the business taxes like the sales tax or value added tax. It may be observed that the higher amount of taxes imposed on certain taxes like ‘sin taxes’ manifests the intention of the government to control the consumption of said good because these products may not be essentially be good to people because of health effects. To illustrate the point, the government prohibiting smoking in public place may have already prohibited TV advertising of the industry’ products because of the effect of the industry on public health only that the government cannot completely ban the sale of these products. Hence, being tied with its hands to limit production without violating the laws of commerce, the government resort to higher taxes to discourage consumption. 3. Conclusion It may be concluded that there are indeed effects of the legal system on how the business entities operates in a certain place.   To such the extent of these economic effects must be viewed in the context of the objective of governments in terms of its paramount purpose of encouraging entrepreneurship while ensuring compliance with laws that are conducive to protecting the life, health, employment and other need of its people. Since business entities could not be avoiding this government interference on business operations, they may just as well comply since these laws are also meant to protect them. Without regulation there could be chaos in society as privileges to operate business could be subject to abuse. Imposing charges to regulate is therefore justified in the exercise of the police power of the state. On the other hand, it is necessary to emphasize that governments also need to defray its expenses and the means to the attain the same is to impose several kind of taxes from business entities and individuals.   When viewed on a wider concept, business entities also need the government in terms of regulation and protection of its interest. Without the government administering the laws on commerce, business entities would be in dangerous situation since they would be operating as if they are playing basket ball without a referee who will tell them who is wrong and who is right in case one of the teams abuses its rights. If therefore the are no government to charge regulation cost and taxes, the law will just be useless because there would be no agent to implement the same. Hence, business entities are to accept the reality of these charges and taxes and factor them in computing profits. References: Fossen   (2002) Norfolk Island and Its Tax Haven; The Australian Journal of Politics and History, Vol. 48, 2002 Goode (1951) The Corporation Income Tax; Wiley Goode (1976) The Individual Income Tax; Brookings Institution Lee   (1973) A History of Regulatory Taxation; University Press of Kentucky, 1973 Smith, et. al (1958) Income Tax Differentials; Tax Institute of America

Service Sector Marketing Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Service Sector Marketing - Assignment Example This definition can be linked to the activities of Leith Agency. A similar definition was offered by Collins and Payne (1991) when the researchers stated that "services are any primary or complementary activity that does not directly. Produce a physical product - that is, the non-goods part of the transaction between customer and provider". This paper therefore, addresses four important questions within the service marketing literature focusing on the case Leith Agency. The traditional marketing mix originated from the marketing of goods for consumer markets and consists of the well known 4P's: Price, Promotion, Place, and Product. The marketing mix approach has been criticized for being incomplete, because it does not bear in mind customer-needs and it industrial marketing (Bitner, 1995, Gronroos, 1990; Gummesson, 1997). Judd (1997) proposes the fifth element as People and takes thereby the human resource factor into account. Booms and Bitner (1981) on their part created 7P's by adding Participants, Physical Evidence, and Process to the original 4P's. The first P-The product refers to as the service and satisfaction offered by Leith Agency to their customers. Here these are the various forms of advertisement refered to as creative output they offer. The second P-The price of the service is the compensation they received in the form of a fee or 15% commission while the place is the office location were exchange takes place. At Leith Agency, the Edinburgh and London offices are the place. The fourth element refers to as Promotion. At Leith Agency, they use both above the line and below the line strategies. Corporate brand building through sponsors. Here the marketing budget are kept at a minimum In the marketing mix literature, the last three elements were added to take care of the service dimension of the product service mix continuum. No wonder, many commentators have refered to the additional three Ps as the Service Ps. This position was supported by Payne & Clark (1995) who proposed one minor modification which leads to their expanded marketing mix for services. Figure 1The 7P's Model Source: Payne and Clark, 1995 Delivering services is characterized by processes. This is actually due to the in-separation of production and consumption of services. Processes are the functional attributes of services which refers to how services are delivered. On the other hand, the service product is the technical quality, and refers to what is delivered. At Leith Agency, this will be the different advertisement options they offer their client, while the processes will be the different media through which the adverts get to the customers. That is the tasks, customers interaction, etc. The consideration of processes in the service marketing mix is justified and crucial to Leith Agency because it includes procedures, tasks, activities and operations which are of importance for the interaction between the service provider (Leith Agency)

PACT analysis and prototype design for an interactive system Coursework

PACT analysis and prototype design for an interactive system - Coursework Example PACT - People, Activities, Contexts, and Technologies- is acknowledged as a beneficial framework for thinking about a design scenario in relation to a very interactive system (Lloyd, 2005). Undertaking a PACT analysis would be valuable for both analysis and design operations; understanding the situation at hand, finding where possible improvements can be done and envisioning situations in future. With PCT analysis one is able to gather all the research on target end users and scope out of the variation of various people, contexts, activities, and technologies possible in context. Depending on the analysis, one can develop concrete and clear scenarios of how target users would be interacting with the Shared Student Shopping System. PACT analysis findings are represented below: The people involved currently in this kind of system are basically students who are on session at various institutions and are being accommodated in institution’s hostels or any of the institution accommodation premises. A part from students, institution workers may not be left out because at times they are found with students purchasing groceries at various kiosks. In as much as the employees can as well benefit from this system, major end users who are to benefit are the students. At times controlling pocket money becomes a problem and a student may be left wondering what next after he or she has spent all the money and still needs to survive. Dedicating a grocer to supply groceries at times is challenging due to consistency issues which may leave the customer unsatisfied and very annoyed (Neeraja, 2011). Coming up with a system that can satisfy both parties can be of great relief since every party would benefit accordingly. An institution normally has students with different abilities; it is within this population that one hardly misses a disable student. Whenever building a system that target particular users, all factors should be considered

Legalizing of Marijuana Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Legalizing of Marijuana - Essay Example This is in a quest to have a share of the war against drugs, which is counterproductive as people tend to go against the law. Decriminalizing marijuana improves the levels of safety in the society by having a reduced number of users, as is the case with over the counter drugs and cigarettes. This is evident since there are fewer cigarette smokers than there are non-smokers. This owes to the fact that smoking is considered a vice, and thus the reduced number falling into the habit. In addition, the use of drugs by black market dealers would be a thing of the past as they use drugs to perpetrate crimes. This is due to the street value attached to marijuana as an illegal drug, and its abundance to anyone who needs it. This way, it is considered fast moving merchandise for which many are willing to put their lives at risk as it is a valuable cash crop. Therefore, legalizing it removes the risk factor and rids mobsters of their criminal activities; moreover, the article states that the us e of legal marijuana blocks anger resulting in fewer incidents of crimes committed in anger, such as wife battering (Havelka). In light of the above issue, Havelka suggests that legalization could bring down the rates of domestic abuse and murder. This is in the last paragraph where he says that the country’s prisons would be less congested and people’s lives would not be ruined by possession of marijuana. Moreover, marijuana holds medicinal benefits to the society in ways that exceed the already available and legal drugs such as tobacco. This is because the toxicity of other drugs like cigarettes affects the health of an individual by causing lung cancer which, in turn, causes death. According the article, there are minimum effects in that there is no evidence of it ever, directly, causing death (Havelka). In addition, it is used to the advantage of the user in that it saves him or her from any kind of stress available, inducing a state of well-being and bringing abou t relaxation, which forms a basis for legalization. Governments stand to benefit from the legalization of marijuana by spending less in incarceration of users and those found in possession in marijuana related cases (Havelka). According to the article, legalization would come in handy by implementing regulations as to who buys and buyers’ age in the consumption of marijuana just as is the case with other drugs such as alcohol and tobacco. In this light, it would keep drug dealers off children and their antics of selling their merchandise to them. This means that members of the society stand to benefit from a legal business that is highly unsaturated and with few investors, governments could make up 6.2 million dollars annually. Havelka argues that the legalization of marijuana could be highly beneficial to the society by coming up with new means of using it other than as drug. This is by using it to make stronger paper for printing that is developed from hemp. He also goes on to argue that decriminalization of marijuana results in fewer marijuana use penalties as compared to its illegalization. Legalization of marijuana is a step towards a dark past where the health of the nation was at risk. This is because the war against drugs, collectively, has had a positive impact on the good health of the population and the social policy. Legalization of marijuana cuts back on the benefits in regard to regulation as availability of marijuana, both legal and illegal one, is

HR Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

HR - Coursework Example Job designing is aimed at improving the progress of an organization, for example by reducing the operational costs of the organization and the training expenses (Arthur, 2004). Job designing improves all these through many strategies, which, are put in place by the administrative body of an organization. These strategies are; job enlargement, job enrichment, job rotation and extension of work time length. This is the process of assigning employees more than one task and of different provisions. This helps in lowering the degree of specialization among the employees and helps them to develop new skills due to their experiences in the jobs. This is where the employee is given some authority left on the hand of the administrative body of an organization. Though it helps in equipping the employee with some managerial skills, it has some disadvantages. The disadvantage is that the employee may be granted much power, which may lead to serious administrative drawbacks. Job rotation; this is where an employee is posted to different departments within an organization. This helps the employee to absorb knowledge to under those different departments and save the organization from the cost of training other employees and also reducing the cost of paying large number of works. This is where the length of the working time is increased in order to give workers ample duration to offer their services without any inconvenience due to lack of enough time. This also helps the workers to work at a reasonable pace with low supervision and still produce better turn out. This is where analysis is made on the most essential components of a job with an aim of reorganizing the job in order to improve its efficiency. According to Robertson and Smith (1985), there are different steps involved in job simplification. The steps are as follows: The fifth step involves attempting the job personally and caution should be taken in order to avoid

Ukraine. United States Minitary Involvement Research Paper

Ukraine. United States Minitary Involvement - Research Paper Example However, due to the presence of common interest regarding the perpetuating and maintenance of International concord and the agreement to mutually fight terrorism has enabled the establishment of military cooperation. The fate of Ukraine is quite critically related to the security of the countries formed after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, and this has been responsible for the U.S. interests in Ukraine. On the other hand, it has been the intention of the defense policy of Ukraine to amalgamate with the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and other similar Euro-Atlantic organizations, and this intention has been largely responsible for Ukraine’s appeasement to U.S. military involvement. Therefore, the United States of America has been actively taking part in supporting Ukraine in its journey towards the transformation into a strong nation. The U.S. Ukraine military relations have been quite beneficial and have enabled Ukraine to learn diverse defense approaches and techniques which have culminated in strengthening its position in the entire zone formed after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The Office of Defense Cooperation of the U.S. works mutually with the Ukraine ministry of Defense to strengthen Ukrainian military by empowering it with latest military equipment and superb training. Ukraine was designated as an independent country on 25th of December 1991. The History of Ukraine dates back to approximately about 5000 BC and it is the largest of all the European nations with respect to territory. Ukraine has an ideal strategic location due to its position between the borders of the European Union on the east, border of Russia on the west, to the north it has the Belarus border and on its south The Black Sea. Ukraine has the longest border with Russia which is about 2063 kilometers long, and the shortest border with Slovakia which is merely 98 kilometers long. Ukraine is a united country in terms of political issues, and is a parliamenta ry presidential republic. In accordance to Ukrainian constitution, Ukraine is a democratic and a law abiding country. The constitution of Ukraine is the country’s fundamental law and like all democratic states, Ukrainian government consists of various political parties, the freedom of speech, an elected president, prime minister and a parliament. Only, the Ukrainian Parliament has the right to change an existing constitution or to adopt a new one. Before, June 1995, the fundamental law of Ukraine Soviet Socialist Republic was its Supreme Court but after June 1995, a constitutional agreement was signed by President Leonid Kuchma, until a proper constitution could be formulated. Therefore, in June 1996, first Ukrainian Constitution was adopted. Major adversary – United States of America is the major adversary for Ukraine in many ways. The national security of Ukraine is practically manhandled by United States military force. Latest military equipment used in Ukraine is a lso provided by the US and Ukraine receives a large amount of aid from the United States. Moreover, Ukraine receives Freedom Support Act assistance from the US. Since, the independence of Ukraine, it has received more than $3 billion dollars as aid from the US and this aid is used by Ukraine for economical, as well as political development. In December 2006, Ukraine signed a $45 million Threshold Program agreement with the United States.

The Social Impact of the Industrial Revolution Research Paper

The Social Impact of the Industrial Revolution - Research Paper Example Advancements and reforms were also evident, the society being encouraged to adhere to the law. This made it possible for people to trade without fearing fraud or breaches of business agreements. Capitalism was also encouraged, and this led to the growth of the economy and industries – to the revolution in the economy. The 18th century transition from the economies based on manual labor and draft animals to a more machine manufacturing system changed the speed and quality of goods produced3. Textile was a crucial commodity during this period, and mechanization of the textile industry and steel manufacturing and the increasing use of refined coal bolstered productivity of the existent industries. With the production of more goods at a faster and more efficient rate, there was a need for the creation of a transportation system to complement these developments. Transport networks, including the railway, canals and roads, were enhanced. This facilitated for the movement of goods fr om the industries to markets, expanding the economy. With the expansion of industries, the economy shifted from agriculture and became more inclined towards industries. This led to the resettlement of individuals to the industrial centers and, consequently, the creation of urban settlements4. The use of machinery during production enabled manufacturers to produce identical goods, which were precisely made and were cheaper. For instance, gun parts were previously uniquely made to fit one gun, so they could not be reused on another. The use of machinery enabled manufacturers to duplicate the parts, making them fit in any gun of its type and making... This report approves that housing was a social problem during the industrial revolution. The living conditions in the era were significantly contrasting between the classes. The factory owners and wealthy industrialists lived in regal quarters with luxurious accommodation. This, however, was not the situation for the poor workers who lived in pathetic conditions of squalor . The influx of workers put a strain in the available amenities, leading to the formation of slums in the industrial regions . This was characterized by poorly constructed houses to accommodate the workers in the new industrial centers. The people lived in cramped regions in housing units that were inhumanely small. They were also required to share toilet facilities. The workers lived in dirty environments, and the hygienic conditions were unimaginable poor. This paper makes a conclusion that the industrial revolution was a significant occurrence in the history of humankind. This is because the event changed the social, economic and political situation globally and its impact is evident in the contemporary world. The advent of industrialization led to the migration of people to the industrial centers and, consequently, to the creation of cities. The changes, however, led to social challenges, which included housing for the workers, child labor and other social problems. These social changes have played a significant role in shaping the social situation of the modern world.

Motivational Problem Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Motivational Problem - Term Paper Example Brown noted that she could be a supervisor within five years. After three years however, Ms. Brown retired and was replaced by Susan Rodgers, previously a Manager of Customer Service from a competitive health care organization. Ms. Rodgers manifested a leadership style that is autocratic and task oriented. She focused on adherence to policies and procedures, particularly in emphasizing sanctions for violating these policies. She did not recognize Angel’s exemplary performance and instead, criticized her openly and negatively. Ms. Rodgers, was a friend of Carrie Fischer, Angel’s colleague, her contemporary in terms of serving the same length of service but who showed lower productivity and performance than Angel. Ms. Rodgers promoted Carrie to the supervisor for the department, much to Angel’s surprise. From then on, Angel manifested a lack enthusiasm for her work, opted to become absent as much as she can, and failed to manifest the same level of performance duri ng the time when Ms. Brown headed the department. Theory of Motivation Using Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory (Herzberg, 1996), it could be deduced that Ms. Rodgers failed to provide motivational factors such as the need to recognize achievement, responsibility, growth and professional advancement through exhibiting her leadership style. Frederick Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory suggests that the factors involved in producing job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to job dissatisfaction. By focusing more on company policies, supervision, sanctions for violations of policies, Ms. Rodgers provided hygiene factors that must be present to prevent dissatisfaction but are limited in their potential to provide a positive incentive. Likewise, by promoting Carrie Fisher, she exhibited unfair ability for just and reliable performance evaluation that contributed to low morale and low productivity for Angel, and possible to the other customer serv ice staff. Theory to Describe an Intervention To motivate employees, particularly Angel, in this situation, the theory that could be used to address the dilemma is also the motivation-hygiene theory by focusing instead on the motivators. Angel should opt to elevate her concern to higher management in terms of questioning the decision of Ms. Rodgers to promote Carrie Fisher instead of her. Her performance evaluation, as proven during the time of Ms. Brown would attest her superiority over Carrie. However, she should be warned not to be demotivated and not to absent herself from work. Doing so would compromise her performance and indicate a negative feedback and would justify Ms. Rodger’s promoting Carrie. Management should effectively evaluate the problem and focus on motivating their personnel through recognizing the employees’ exemplary performance, providing opportunities for personal and professional growth through just and equitable promotions; which are all consis tent with Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory. Likewise, Herzberg actually proposed job enrichment strategies (Herzberg, 1981) by making the job challenging and meaningful. Herzberg’s model is deemed to be more specific in providing a framework by which these needs can be satisfied in the work setting.

CAPM (Capital Asset Pricing Model) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

CAPM (Capital Asset Pricing Model) - Essay Example and expected returns which is denoted as r. The ? is used as a measure of non diversified risk and implies that the expected return is the return on a risk free asset in addition to a risk premium (Laubscher, 2002). The risk premium will be equivalent to the market return in surplus of the risk free rate which is multiplied by the share portfolio. This is the reason that ? is regarded as the difference between the returns on various share portfolio. The formula for CAPM model is denoted below: R = Rf + ?(Rm - Rf) R = Expected return on the share/portfolio. Rf = Risk-free rate of return. ? = Beta (volatility of the share/portfolio relative to the market portfolio). Rm = Expected return on the market portfolio. Rm - Rf = Market risk premium (Laubscher, 2002). In the CAPM model risk is defined as the extent to which returns on share portfolio have covariance and variance with the market returns. ? is used for measuring risk and the basis for expected market returns. It is used as a meas ure for non diversified risk and is a relative measure of risk relative to the market portfolio. ... Government bonds and Treasury bills are used instead of this instrument (Laubscher, 2002). 2. Return in the market: The market portfolio constitutes of all kinds of risky assets and is one of the most available diversified portfolios. After the valuation of portfolio is done then it will be difficult to diversify the risk. The market return is the return on the market portfolio which constitutes of all risky assets. The rate of return is actually measured by the approximation of the stock indices which is used a proxy to the market. However, the problem arises regarding the choice of the index to be used as a proxy (Laubscher, 2002).The expected rate of return depends upon the market risk but it also depends upon the nature of the benchmark of the portfolios. However, investors are satisfied in investing in a limited number of benchmark portfolios. 3. Beta (?): This is one of the most crucial aspects of the CAPM model; as it helps in determining the difference between the expected ma rket return and the actual market rate of return. Portfolio betas are usually derived from the historical data and are useful in the measurement of the betas of the future (Rai University, n.d.). According to economic analysts the high beta shares tend to have a higher returns and lower betas shares tend to have low returns. The relationship between the average returns and beta is linear but the slope of risk and return relationship is not as steep as estimated by the CAPM model. Beta measures the relationship based on past returns and the derived results are more accurate than the standard deviation used to measure the relationship between risk and returns (Laubscher, 2002). Figure 1: Relationship of risk & return as per CAPM Model (Source: Myers, 2003) From the

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Freeway Congestion Essay The economy of a country may be determined by several factors . the growth of country’s wealth is coupled to factors such as the people population, availability of natural resources, their proper usage and general environmental management. During early time of our fore father, people enjoyed better environment due to low populations of all sort things. Peoples’ population was low and many of them lived in remote areas. Occupational space was never an issue to think of, as there was plenty of land available for any particular use. They preferred rural areas as most of them were gatherers and pastoralists. While others were substance farmers and hunters, they had the freedom to use select the site to carry out any activity of their wish anywhere. Land ownership was generally belonging to the community but not an individual as it is nowadays. The present system of individual land ownership has brought a lot of discrepancies in the distribution of people populations, infrastructure and other community amenities of paramount importance. Due to above reason different kinds of congestion has resulted leading to stresses and tensions in today’s global world. This has leads me to think of economic urban areas in term traffic congestions. (Schrank and Lomas, 2002) The interdependence between transportation and land use has long before been recognized m. Land use strongly affects transportation patterns, and the properties of the transportation network strongly affect the land use. This is well understood in a homocentric city with only commuting travel of the central business district. Most cities have become increasingly polycentric and job locations increasingly dispersed. (Anas and Small, 1980) It is also evident that noncom muting trips have become increasing important with the choice of residential location less strongly tied to workplace location. So these changes in land use are likely to continue to affect traffic volumes and patterns even more so. It is certain that the problem of traffic jams is so often to a point of describing it as a curse of the modern life. It is obvious that people must interact with one another through social life and that they have to travel long distances for purposes of business transactions. Motor vehicle transportation is one of the common methods used all over the world. Many major cities are fed and connected to each other by means of roads . so roads makes a very useful means of communication. People and cargo transport is a usual activity. Although this has proved very valuable to many developing and developed countries, it has also turned out to be one of the most embarrassing ways of travel and cargo transportation means. This is exactly due to traffic congestion in major towns and cities; which are also over burdened with all other types of congestions. Traffic congestion result out to be a miserable waste of time . Traffic congestion is the build up of traffic preventing efficient movement . it is one of the most significant problems faced in modern cities today. The products of this are other major problems such as air pollution, noise pollution, visual pollution, parking problems, destruction houses and increased risks of vehicle accidents. (Schrank and Lomas, 2002) It is not unreasonable to call up severe visions of traffic jam by the year 2050 with angry motorists hooting their horns, distressed not to be even later in picking children from school or making critical appointments in the developed countries. Many people living in developed countries continues to buy more vehicles, hence household vehicle ownership rates continue to rise evenly (Hu and Young 1994). The trend of continuous increase in incomes and falling costs of car operation, vehicle miles traveled per licensed driver continue their seemingly inexorable rise. Several transportation institutes have reported alarming increases in the traffic congestion in metropolitan areas over the last two decades (schrank and Lomas, 2002). The average number of hour that most people have suffered in a traffic jam is seven. At the same time, the travel hours to work have been increasing too, nonetheless dramatically. However, there are equal countertrends, such as rising of urban street surfaces and traffic management which includes the synchronization of traffic light, improved urban freeways and highways being added and expanded, production of new automobiles with advanced technologies not forgetting the increasing proportion of urban travel from one suburban location to another. The above trend is being offset or balances out due to increase in travel under severe congestion conditions. (Schrank and Lomas, 2002) The traffic congestion situation looks to a forgotten or a blind eye sight in most experts and this raises a weak presumption that the new improvement being under taken are leading to traffics moving more faster than twenty years ago. The fact remains that the future holds worse urban traffic congestions hence there is great need to find ways of alleviating urban traffic congestions. This can be thought in many ways as a cost that is voluntarily incurred in order to enjoy the higher incomes, amenities, increasing variety of consumer goods, enlarged scope for social interaction, and generally more stimulating and vibrant lifestyles the living in cities provides. Due to fully inefficient economy of many countries, which entails among other thing the efficient pricing and provision of transportation, traffic congestion is of paramount importance than the increase the price of any other commodity competitive in the market. Urbane economy should therefore in any way be ignored, but people should be focused out the failure to charge drivers for the external congestions they impose. Several traffic controls have been put in place for which some have worked well in some countries while other are void. Land use controls on a macro scale have been practiced in Northern Europe; this has proved very effectively in reducing the overall travel and congestion . it is noted that land use control on micro scale being practiced in the U. S where by residential are separated from non residential land uses, encourages car travel while mixing land uses at local level. (Schrank and Lomas, 2002) Another method that can be applied to the reduction of traffic congestion is the application of mass transportation mostly by focusing on cars. Many personal cars within the cities carry individual drivers with all the other seats remaining empty. this is quite uneconomical because of fuel consumption and the space utilization on the roads (Mohring, 1972). there is need to explore basic economic principles of mass transit that are likely effective in lowering transit cost function and traffic jams. This is one major factors leading congestion because people have valued comfort more than time and cost. Economists should come up with ways that consider vehicle size, comfort, acceleration of buses and subway cars, the length of subway trains and station platforms, the service frequency and density of buses and subway trains, procedures to mitigate bus grouping, expedite passenger entry and exit reducing the external marginal congestions imposed by buses on cars, and repair and maintenance rolling stock together with the design of fare collection systems. Pedestrian are nevertheless left out as they really cause and act as obstacle during road crossing. it is very important to accord the due respect to pedestrian at the zebra crossing . but such crossing areas bring inconveniencies to drivers hence causing jams. Traffic congestion will be alleviated if pedestrians and travelers’ walkways would be provided with fly over instead of zebra crossing. Thus pedestrian –car congestion should be given anew design and construction. Many developed countries suffer from traffic congestion due to restriction of shopping hours. such policies restring shopping periods should be ban to allow more shopping time and reduce congestion this may seem less conceivable as result oriented of target but many people take one shopping trip rather than having separate shopping trip. Liberalized shopping has desirable outcomes. (Schrank and Lomas, 2002) Considering that often accidents do occur, they are not only costly to the direct damage but also for the non recurrent congestion they induce. The involvement of engineers on the construction of roads is necessary to include economists. An Example of work done by Newbery (1988) gives valuable contribution of freeway and high way design ,construction, and maintenance, if sound cost- benefit analysis were practiced in all aspects of urban road engineering, substantial cost saving would be achieved . Urban transport economists make valuable contributions through analyze of sound cost benefit by state and local government. In conclusion, traffic congestion is a major concern in modern society . it affects our environment with environmental pollutions through the emission of fumes. People are put at risk from the danger of excessive vehicles which results from increased car ownership and commuting to fat residential places. Generally the solution to traffic problems is by widening the roads, creation of bypasses in the inner ring roads and outer ring roads . creation of more motorways and bus lanes to provide more space. Another way of improving the means is banning personal vehicles through imposing heavy levies on fuels and import duty. This can also be incorporated by banning cars from the central business districts and overcharging those with special cases on parking places. Reference: Abbott, J. (1990): the key role for public transport funding boost in Stockholm’s road pricing plans. Urban transport International Anas, A, and Small, K. (1998): Urban spatial structure: journal of economic literature Dupree, H. (1987): Urban transportation: New town solution. Organization for Economic co-operation and development, (1973): Effect of traffic and roads on the environment in urban areas: Paris Kanemoto, Y. (1980): theories of urban externalities. Amsterdam.

My Philosophy of Nursing Essay Example for Free

My Philosophy of Nursing Essay The main purpose of the paper is to express my personal philosophy of nursing. The paper provides an observation of a framework of my personal practice of nursing and the reasons why I choose nursing as a profession. The issue is extremely important to be studied, researched, and analyzed as it represents the theoretical basis of each nurse and highly supports one’s life philosophy and the system of interaction the nurse has with the rest of the society. Special attention is paid to the attitude that nurses have to their patients, family members, other nurses, and health care professionals as this has the major impact on the nursing practice in general. In order to define a personal philosophy of nursing, it is very important to understand the meaning of the term â€Å"philosophy†. As for me, this issue can be perfectly addressed with the definition that presents philosophy as a specific attitude towards life and reality that evolves according to the beliefs of each nurse (Edwards, 1997). This definition is really useful as it gives the freedom to use my own beliefs and experience to talk about this issue. The real nature of nursing is quite diverse, and it has been always a subject for a discussion among professionals trying to define whether nursing is a science or an art. I see that there is a place for both these terms when we talk about real nursing practice (June, 2004). The attitude towards nursing in my personal life has been forming through the years, beginning with my first dreams of becoming a nurse that were motivated with the desire to wear white uniform like people that I saw on television. However, as the time passed, my vision of nursing has gone through serious changes. I understood that nurse is not just a person in a uniform, but a professional who can make differences in a patient’s life. During the period when I was trying to make my final decision about the future professional career, I was lucky to be able to talk to and followed by real professional nurse that was trying to teach me and my family members how to look after my grandmother. This outstanding experience showed me the real meaning of this profession; therefore, I was able to see what I was going to be in future. As it is known, some researchers see nursing as an art. This tendency began with the first comparisons trying to see nursing as an art in metaphorical sense, not in the way we see fine art. These definitions were present in the works of Florence Nightingale in the end of the 19th century, when the  scientists were trying to adhere to nursing quality. The main issue then was the question whether there is a highest and most desirable level of nursing practice (Austgard, 2006). These thoughts and ideas are now developed in the works of Benner as this researcher also evolves the importance of quality level of nursing and caring (Benner, 1984). It is extremely important to pay attention to caring and the level of interactions between professionals and patents, their family members and the other medical workers. My personal way of interacting is based on the personal experience of taking care of my grandmother; therefore, I try to build my attitude to patients on the basis of trust and partnership. I find these aspects extremely important for the successful nursing practice. The same refers to the attitude I have towards my coworkers. As it can be seen, the nursing practice is an extremely complex issue that requires close attention and proper analysis. It is crucial for every professional to develop one’s own philosophy of nursing. This process is long and can take the whole life. It also requires attention to such factor as the character of interacting with the patients, their family members, and coworkers. This issue is so important, because the successful nursing professional can play a decisive role in patients’ life. References Austgard, K. (2006). The aesthetic experience of nursing. Nursing Philosophy, 7(1), 11-19. Benner, P. (1984). From novice to expert: Excellence and power in clinical nursing practice (2 ed.). Menlo Park, CA: Addison Wesley. Edwards, S. D. (1997). What is philosophy of nursing? Journal of Advanced Nursing, 25(2), 1089-1093. June, K. F. (2004). Towards a philosophic theory of nursing. Nursing Philosophy, 5(1), 79-83.

Extranet Infrastructure For Hospital Chains Information Technology Essay

Extranet Infrastructure For Hospital Chains Information Technology Essay Networking and Internet has revolutionized the means of communication and has made this world a small family. Many businesses have developed on the basis of Internet and have attained huge success by adopting to advanced technology in sensible manner. This assignment deals with network infrastructure implementation in a chain of hospitals. This assignment is divided into different sections starting from implementation of type of network with OSI TCP/IP implementation at different layers of infrastructure. Then it also includes the type of hardware / software required for implementation and also the most important part i.e. implementation of security policy. 1.0 Type of Network Type of network required to be chosen is a tedious task. Different types of network designs, are categorized based on their scope or scale. Network industry referes to each type of design as some kind of area network. Choosing an area network requires in-depth requirement analysis and cost analysis. There are different types of network available such as: LAN : Local Area Network MAN: Metropolitan Area Network WAN: Wide Area Network SAN: Storage Area Network WLAN: Wireless Local Area Network. CAN: Campus Area Network PAN: Personal Area Network DAN: Desk Area Network These all types of network are chosen in different types of situations. Considering the scenario of the chain of hospitals having 25 computers different types of options are available: If the hospitals are situated in a city then MAN can be implemented that can be used to connect different hospitals and LAN for connection inside each hospital. If the hospitals are dispersed in different cities or countries then WAN is required to connect two different hospitals and again LAN can be used for connection inside each hospital. SAN can be used to transfer large amounts of data between computer and storage elements. Justification: Since PAN and DAN are networks of short distances, it is not used to implement in this kind of scenario. CAN spans all LANs and since this is a matter of only 25 computers it is not a wise decision to implement CAN and neither cost effective. WLAN can be implemented but as communication become wireless there also comes into account security concerns which becomes costly. Since the hospital deals with lot of patients and huge amounts of data it is necessary to implement SAN since it will make data transfer more secure and robust. Topology for LAN connection: Now since the connection between hospitals is decided, next point of concern is the connection inside each hospital. The computers in a LAN can be connected in several ways. These different ways of connection is referred to as topology. There are several topologies such as: Bus Star Tree Ring Mesh Source: (GeoSig, 2009) Each and every topology has its own advantages and disadvantages. Sometimes there is also mixed topology called HYBRID topology that is used, which is the implementation of two or more topologies. Here in this scenario, the best configuration to use is mesh topology or ring topology. Justification: Mesh topology ensures robust and secure data communication since each all computers are attached by dedicated links. Also its secure since the message sent to the intended recipient only sees it. Hence mesh topology is ideal for secure and effective communication. The only disadvantage being amount of cabling causing an increase in number of I/O ports. In order to be cost effective ring topology is also advisable. Since in case of ring topology there is point to point line configuration only and hence amount of cabling is reduced. Also it is very easy to reinstall and reconfigure. Fault isolation is also achieved because in a ring there is a signal that is circulating every time. Hence if a device does not receive signal for a certain amount of time it can issue an alarm which can alert the networker to the problem and location. The only disadvantage is that break in the ring such as a disabled station causes the entire network to become disable. Although this disadvantage can be overcome by using dual ring or switch that is capable of closing this break. Other types of topologies are not taken into account for following reasons: In case of bus topology the cable length is limited to few number of computers and also modification in number of computers, fault isolation and reconfiguration is tedious task. In case of Star topology the failure of central hub caused the whole network to fail which is a very serious disadvantage. Tree topology is very much like the Star topology. It has two types of hubs instead of one as in star. But failure of any one type of hub results in failure of that whole network. Therefore the recommended network type for implementation is to adopt WAN or MAN for wider communication and LAN and Mesh/Ring topology for local communication. A basic LAN consists of the following components. Two or more computers. Network Interface card or LAN Card in each PC. Ethernet cable (Cat5, UTP/SPT) cable to connect the two computers. A hub, switch or router to route or direct the network traffic. Software for the communication/computer networking. The alternate technologies to Ethernet are Token Ring, which is used in the Ring Topologies networks. Token Ring is designed by the IBM and ATM. In ATM networking, devices are connected with each other over a very large distance (thus forms the WAN), and behaves like LANs. 2.0 OSI and TCP/IP Layer Implementation OSI an abbreviation for Open System Interconnection model was developed by ISO for facilitating communication across all types of computer systems. The purpose of OSI model is to facilitate communication regardless of their underlying architecture i.e. without requirement of changing the logic of underlying hardware and software. It is built of seven layers as follows: Physical : Layer 1 Data Link : Layer 2 Network : Layer 3 Transport : Layer 4 Session : Layer 5 Presentation : Layer 6 Application : Layer 7 TCP/IP is an abbreviation for Transmission Control Protocol/ Internetworking Protocol. The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed before the development of OSI model. Therefore the layers are not an exact match with the OSI model. The suite is made up of 5 layers: Physical : Layer 1 Data Link : Layer 2 Network : Layer 3 Transport : Layer 4 Application : Layer 5 OSI layer: Recommended hardware and software Hardware: Physical Layer: It defines all the components such as electrical, mechanical and all types of hardware for sending and receiving data, all physical aspects.such as fibre optic cables (since SAN is used), cards etc. The bit stream is conveyed at electrical and mechanical level. The characteristics defined by the physical layer are: Voltage levels Timing of impulses Physical data rates Max transmission distance Physical connectors. The implementation of physical layer can be classified as either LAN or WAN specifications. Data Link Layer The data link layer is responsible to define the format of the data and ensure its reliable transfer. It facilitates frame synchronization, protocol management, flow control and also handles all errors in physical layer. There are 2 sublayers: MAC: Media Access Control LLC: Logical Link Control MAC is responsible for two devices to uniquely identify each other while LLC is responsible for managing communication over a single link of network. The hardware that operate at this layer are Hubs and Switches. Network Layer: Network layer provides facility of switching, congestion control, routing and error handling. The protocol operating at this layer is called IP i.e. Internetworking Protocol and it defines the the way of determining route selection systematically. In order to facilitate thi, Routers operate at this layer that determines the way of forwarding packets. Transport Layer At the transport layer data is segmented into packets for transferring across the network. The function of this layer is to provide flow control, error checking and recovery and multiplexing.This layer makes use of protocols such as TCP i.e Transport Control Protocol and UDP i.e. User Datagram Protocol. Session Layer Session layer is responsible for dealing with session and connectin co-ordination. Its function is to establish, manage and terminate communication session. The protocols functioning in this layer are Remote Procedure Call (RPC), Zone Information Protocol (ZIP), Appletalk, Session Control Protocol (SCP). Presentation This layer is responsible for coding and conversion of data from application to network format. It makes sure that the data of application layer is readable by the application layer of other system. It contains software used for encryption of data and thereby providing compatibility between systems. Application Layer This layer is completely responsible for the software applications. The main function is to identify the communication partners and determine the availability of resources and also synchronizing communication. It provides end user services such as e-mails, file transfer, virtual terminal access and network management.The softwares required to be implemented is discussed after the TCP/IP network model. Some of the examples implemented in application layer are File Transfer Protocol(FTP), Telnet and Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP). TCP/IP Network Model The physical and data link layer performs similar to OSI model. Physical and Data link It defines all drivers and NIC (Network Interface Card) Network Layer It handles basic communication and protocols operating at this layer are IP, ARP, IGMP and ICMP. Transport Layer Handles the flow of data and segments data into packets over network. TCP and UDP operate in this layer. Application Layer: It handles data of end user applications. Frequently used TCP/IP applications includes Telnet, SMTP, SNMP, DNS, NTP, Traceroute, RIP and NFS. Recommended Softwares: The softwares required for communication over intranet are: Windows 7 OS UnixWare Remote Desktop connnection Lan Messenger Justification: The OS recommended is Windows 7 since it is the latest and fastest OS as compared to previous versions of Microsoft. Remote Desktop connection is required to be establised in order to connect the computer over LAN or WAN. UnixWare provides facility of data communication over WAN. It establishes point to point links thereby facilitating fast transfer. SAN network also requires fast and efficient data communication that also can be achieved by usage of this software. Lan Messenger or a system that is uniformly implemented on all computers should be purchased. 3.0 IT Policy Main purpose of the IT policy stated is to define a framework on how to protect the Hospitals computer systems, network and all data contained within, or accessible on or via these systems from all threats whether internal, external, deliberate or accidental. It is the policy of institution is to ensure that: All central computer systems and information contained within them will be protected against any unauthorised access or use. Information kept in these systems is managed securely, should comply with  relevant data protection laws in a professional and proper way. All members of the hospital are aware that it is the part of their duty to abide by this policy. All employees (computer users ) accept total responsibility adhering to and implementing this policy within their service areas. The integrity and confidentiality of all central computer systems; accessible on or via these systems is the responsibility of Computing Services. All regulatory and legislative requirements regarding computer security and information confidentiality and integrity will be met by Computing Services and the hospital regulatory bodies. All breaches of security will be reported to and investigated by a nominated security coordinator usually within Computing Services and hospital regulatory bodies. The primary role of the Hospital function regarding medication and research is not hindered. 2. Statement of Authority, Scope and Responsibilities In addition all users have a responsibility to report promptly (to Computing Services or Hospitals regulatory bodies) any incidents which may have a security significance to the Hospital. 3. The Computing Environment Computing Services(under the guidance of hospital regulatory bodies) plan, maintain and operate a range of central computing servers, core network switches, edge network switches, backup systems, and the overall network infrastructure interconnecting these systems. The computing environment is defined as all central computing resources and network infrastructure managed and overseen by Computing Services and all computing devices that can physically connect, and have been authorised to connect, to this environment. All are covered by this policy, including computing hardware and software, any Hospital related data residing on these machines or accessible from these machines within the campus network environment and any media such as CD-ROMs, DVD-ROMs and backup tapes that may at times be accessible.. Computing Services also considers all temporary and permanent connections via the Hospital network, casual laptop docking points, the Wireless network, the Virtual Private Network and the RAS modem pools to be subject to the provisions of this policy. Computing resources not owned by the Hospital may be connected to the Hospitals network. However, all such resources must function in accordance with Hospitals regulations governing the use of computing resources. Computing Services reserves the right to monitor, log, collect and analyze the content of all transmissions on networks maintained by both Computing Services and individual departments and organisations at any time deemed necessary for performance and fault diagnostic purposes. Any network monitoring will be performed in accordance with the Computer Systems Scanning and Monitoring Policy. It is the right of computing service to check or monitor any employees login without prior content. 4. Physical Security Computing Services provides a secure machine room with protected power arrangements and climate controlled environment. Primarily for the provision of central computing and network facilities individual departments and, if appropriate, individuals are encouraged to make use of the facility for applicable teaching or research projects. Any computer equipment in general office environment should be within physically secure rooms outside of general office hours. Desktop machines in public areas should contain a device or mechanism for securing and protecting the main components and contents of the computer from theft. The above is in accordance with The Hospitals insurance policy . 5. Access to Systems Computer and network systems access is only via individual user accounts. Please refer to the user accounts policy for further details and account eligibility. 5.1 Email Accounts provide access to email facilities. Use of email is governed by Computing Services email policy. 5.2 File Storage All users have access to the centrally managed file storage. Use of the file storage is governed by Computing User file storage policy, It should be appreciated for most applications the security of files on the server is considered to be adequate. However files held on a Network File Server (NFS) should never be considered completely secure. For this reason Computing Services do not recommend that you hold sensitive information such as exam papers or results on the central server (or on any NFS file server for that matter). 5.3 The Web All users have the right to publish their own web pages under the appropriate subdomain of bath.ac.uk. Individual users will be responsible for content in these areas and the Hospital reserves the right to remove access to any material which it deems inappropriate, illegal or offensive. Users should not in any way use their personal web space for commercial purposes. Users shall not in any way use personal web space to publish material which deliberately undermines IT security at the Hospital or elsewhere. Users shall not publish any information regarding open accounts, passwords, PINs, illegally obtained software licenses, hacking tools, common security exploits or similar unless there are specific and legitimate reasons to do so. E.G in order to demonstrate a problem to enable a fix, or similar. 5.4 Internet Access The campus network is connected to the Internet via SWERN and JANET. Computing Services operate and maintain a firewall with the aim of protecting the campus network and Computer systems from unauthorised or illegal access or attack from the external environment. 5.5 Campus Network Individuals must seek permission from local support representatives before connecting any machine to the LAN. Particular attention must be paid to the Host connection and IP Address Allocation policy before any connection is made. Computing Services may disconnect any unauthorised host from the network without warning if discovered. 6. Remote Access to Systems Remote access is defined as accessing systems from a physically separate network. This may include: Connections direct across the Internet VPN Connections Direct dial connections to the RAS (Remote Access Service) Any user with a valid Hospital computer account may access systems as appropriate. Remote access is allowed via secure methods only. Remote connections to any campus IT services are subject to the same rules and regulations, policies and practices just as if they were physically on the campus. Computing Services shall provide the only VPN and dial-in service that can be used. All connections via these services will be logged. No other remote access service shall be installed or set up, including single modems connected to servers or workstations. Any active dial-in services found to be in existence will be removed from the network. 7. Data Security The Hospital holds a variety of sensitive data including personal information  about students and staff. If you have been given access to this information, you  are reminded of your responsibilities under data protection law. You should only take a copy of data outside the Universitys systems if absolutely necessary, and you should exhaust all other options before doing so. This includes putting sensitive data onto laptops, memory sticks, cds/dvds or  into emails. If you do need to  take data outside the University, this should only be with the authorisation of the Universitys data protection officer. As part of this you should perform a risk assessment on the implications of it falling into the wrong hands, and take appropriate steps to mitigate against this. This will almost certainly include encrypting the information, and checking the data protection statements of any recipients of the data. There are a variety of methods of remote access to systems available (in particular using VPN and remote desktop or terminal services) which  allow you to work on data in-situ rather than taking it outside the University, and these should always be used in preference to taking data off-site. Computing Services  offers a variety of  information and support to help you keep data secure.  If  you are uncertain about any aspect of data security, you must contact us for advice. 8. Anti-Virus Security Computing Services will provide means by which all users can download and install current versions of site-licensed virus protection software. Users must ensure that they are running with adequate and up-to-date anti-virus software at all times. If any user suspects viral infection on their machine, a complete virus scan should be performed. If Computing Services detect a machine behaving abnormally due to a possible viral infection it will disconnected from the network until deemed safe. Reconnection will usually be after liaison with the